PPARδ is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Last reviewed on 2026-03-10. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Safety concerns emerged from long-term animal studies. In rodents given the compound for extended periods, researchers found an increased incidence of certain cancers, including liver and bladder tumors. These findings contributed to the discontinuation of clinical development. Whether similar risks apply to short-term or low-level exposure in humans is not established, and controlled human safety data are limited. The relevance of high-dose rodent carcinogenicity findings to human use remains a subject of debate.
Human trials of GW501516 were small and short in duration. They examined lipid levels, glucose handling, and other metabolic markers, but the programs were halted after the animal cancer findings. No approved therapeutic product exists, and published human data are insufficient for establishing long-term safety. Reports of use for athletic performance come mainly from non-clinical settings and cannot be verified through controlled trials. Independent testing of products sold as cardarine has found inconsistent purity and labeling.
In laboratory settings, cardarine is studied as a tool compound for probing PPARδ biology. Published experiments often use cell cultures, rodent models, or isolated tissues. Some investigations focus on metabolic effects, while others assess potential risks such as carcinogenicity observed in long-term animal studies. Because human trials are sparse, most knowledge comes from preclinical work and adverse event reports. Scientific literature frequently notes the gap between animal findings and human outcomes. The compound is not a dietary supplement and is not intended for human consumption.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound developed in the 1990s through research collaborations involving GlaxoSmithKline. It belongs to a class of molecules known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonists. Early studies explored its effects on lipid metabolism and energy expenditure in animal models. The compound was never approved as a human medicine, and clinical development was discontinued. In the years since, it has appeared in fitness and bodybuilding communities as a performance-enhancing substance. Regulatory agencies classify it as an unapproved drug.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary target | PPARδ (NR1C2) | Nuclear receptor involved in lipid metabolism |
| Preclinical effect | Increased fatty acid oxidation | Observed in rodent studies |
| Key safety signal | Tumors in rodents after long-term exposure | Contributed to halted clinical development |
| Human trial status | No approved product; development stopped | Limited short-term metabolic data |
| Sport regulatory status | Prohibited at all times | WADA hormone and metabolic modulators class |
The compound is typically described as a laboratory compound rather than a therapeutic product. Published reports have explored its role in lipid disorders, insulin sensitivity, and exercise metabolism, yet no major drug regulator has approved it for medical use. Commercial samples sold under the cardarine name may vary in purity and identity. Analytical confirmation is therefore necessary when the material is discussed in scientific or regulatory contexts. Its classification as a prohibited substance in sport further shapes how it is studied and reported.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied for its effects on lipid and glucose metabolism. It functions as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, or PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression. The molecule is not a steroid, nor is it a selective androgen receptor modulator. It is also known in research and sports literature as GW-501516 and endurobol. Early laboratory work examined its metabolic activity in cell cultures and animal models.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
Cardarine has no approved therapeutic indication and is not marketed as a medicine. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists GW501516 as a prohibited substance at all times, covering both in-competition and out-of-competition periods. National laws vary: some countries treat it as an unapproved drug subject to import controls, while others have specific restrictions on sale for human consumption. It is often sold as a research chemical, a label that does not imply safety or legality. Enforcement actions have targeted online vendors and shipments.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and related metabolites using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be analyzed. The method targets the parent compound and phase I and phase II metabolites, which extend the detection window. Because the substance is prohibited at all times, athletes can be tested outside competition. Detection limits and windows depend on the assay, sample type, and individual metabolism.
Quality assessment for cardarine samples usually combines identity, purity, and impurity testing. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry can confirm molecular structure, while high-performance liquid chromatography estimates purity. Certificates of analysis from testing laboratories may list these results, but they do not establish safety or legality. In the absence of approved manufacturing, products sold online may contain the wrong compound, variable amounts, or unlisted contaminants. Independent verification is therefore central to analytical work and to interpreting any reported biological activity.
Laboratory detection of GW501516 commonly uses liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The method can identify the parent compound or its metabolites in urine and blood after sample cleanup. Protein precipitation, solid-phase extraction, or enzymatic hydrolysis may precede analysis, depending on the matrix. Reference standards are required for accurate quantification and confirmation. Because the compound is not approved, testing often occurs in anti-doping, forensic, or research settings rather than routine clinical care. Results are reported with limits of detection and quantification.
Stability of GW501516 depends on form, temperature, light exposure, and moisture. Solid reference material is typically stored frozen or refrigerated in a desiccator and protected from light. Solutions in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide are often kept frozen in aliquots to reduce freeze-thaw cycling. Aqueous solubility is low, so aqueous stock solutions can be difficult to prepare without cosolvents. Degradation may appear as changes in chromatographic purity or mass spectral signal. Stability studies are needed to establish shelf life for any specific preparation.
== Further reading == Danger on the high seas – whales, debris and weather just some of the obstacles in the Volvo Ocean Race – Steve Elling, The National, 9 October 2014 Mundle, Rob (2006). Life at the Extreme: The Volvo Ocean Race Round the World 2005-2006. Nomad Press. ISBN 978-0-97712-948-5. Mundle, Rob (2003). Ocean Warriors: The Thrilling Story of the 2001/2002 Volvo Ocean Race Round the World. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06050-808-1.
All records, in any form (including, but not limited to, written, electronic, magnetic, and optical records; and scans, x-rays, and electrocardiograms) that describe or record the methods, conduct, and/or results of a trial, the factors affecting a trial, and the actions taken. (ICH E6) Dose
==== pIII ==== pIII is the protein that determines the infectivity of the virion. pIII is composed of three domains (N1, N2 and CT) connected by glycine-rich linkers. The N2 domain binds to the F pilus during virion infection freeing the N1 domain which then interacts with a TolA protein on the surface of the bacterium. Insertions within this protein are usually added in position 249 (within a linker region between CT and N2), position 198 (within the N2 domain) and at the N-terminus (inserted between the N-terminal secretion sequence and the N-terminus of pIII). However, when using the BamHI site located at position 198 one must be careful of the unpaired Cysteine residue (C201) that could cause problems during phage display if one is using a non-truncated version of pIII. An advantage of using pIII rather than pVIII is that pIII allows for monovalent display when using a phagemid (plasmid derived from Ff phages) combined with a helper phage. Moreover, pIII allows for the insertion of larger protein sequences (>100 amino acids) and is more tolerant to it than pVIII. However, using pIII as the fusion partner can lead to a decrease in phage infectivity leading to problems such as selection bias caused by difference in phage growth rate or even worse, the phage's inability to infect its host. Loss of phage infectivity can be avoided by using a phagemid plasmid and a helper phage so that the resultant phage contains both wild type and fusion pIII.
== Further information == Betz Laboratories (1976). Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning (7th ed.). Betz Laboratories. Ion Exchangers (K. Dorfner, ed.), Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1991. C. E. Harland, Ion exchange: Theory and Practice, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 1994. Friedrich G. Helfferich (1962). Ion Exchange. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-68784-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Kemmer, Frank N. (1979). The NALCO Water Handbook. McGraw-Hill. Ion exchange (D. Muraviev, V. Gorshkov, A. Warshawsky), M. Dekker, New York, 2000. A. A. Zagorodni, Ion Exchange Materials: Properties and Applications, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006. SenGupta, Arup K. (2017). Ion exchange in environmental processes: fundamentals, applications and sustainable technology. Hoboken, NJ. ISBN 978-1-119-42125-2. OCLC 1001290476.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Dr., I., & Luqman, M. (2012). Ion Exchange Technology I : Theory and Materials. Springer Netherlands. Harland, C. E. (1994). Ion exchange : theory and practice (2nd ed.). The Royal Society of Chemistry.
In archaeology, the term in situ has been used variably to describe artifacts or features found undisturbed since deposition; however, its definition remains contested. Scholars distinguish between a broad usage, referring to materials recovered through controlled excavation, and a stricter usage applied only to those discovered in undisturbed depositional settings. Between these poles lies a continuum of depositional scenarios, from sealed habitation floors to slope or fluvial deposits, meaning that whether an object is in situ depends on site-specific formation processes and the degree to which stratigraphic—as well as spatial—relationships can be reconstructed. Recording the exact spatial coordinates, stratigraphic position, and surrounding matrix of depositional materials is necessary for understanding past human activities and historical processes. While artifacts are often removed for analysis, certain archaeological features—such as hearths, postholes, and architectural foundations—have to be thoroughly documented in place to preserve their contextual information during excavation. This documentation relies on various methods, including detailed field notes, scaled technical drawings, cartographic representation, and high-resolution photographic records. Current archaeological practice incorporates advanced digital technologies, including 3D laser scanning, photogrammetry, unmanned aerial vehicles, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), to capture complex spatial relationships.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Real-time air monitoring == The first SCIEX product, introduced in 1979, was the TAGA (Trace Atmospheric Gas Analyzer) quadrupole mass spectrometer system, which used atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization (APCI) for direct air analysis. Use of a cryopump vacuum system run by a liquid helium compressor allowed the instrument to be mounted in a large van for mobile operation, and operated while in motion to monitor concentrations of air pollutants. In 1981, the TAGA 6000, the first commercial triple quadrupole mass spectrometer, was introduced also in both lab-based and mobile configurations. Systems were acquired by, among others, government environmental agencies in Ontario and New York State, and the USEPA, and have been used in various applications such as tracking fugitive emission plumes from industrial sites, analysis of gases from contaminated homes in the Love Canal area and for air monitoring in the Gulf area after the BP spill in 2010. In 1979, the TAGA 3000 was used for real-time monitoring of toxic gas plumes of chlorine, styrene and other gases released from the Mississauga train derailment and fire providing timely information for emergency personnel.
By the middle years of the eighteenth century, the Shihabi amirs converted to Christianity, so did several other Druze amirs and prominent Druze clans, like the originally Druze Abi-Lamma clan (a Druze family who was a close ally of the Shihabs) which also converted to Christianity and joined the Maronite Church. After the Shihab dynasty converted to Christianity, the Druze lost most of their political and feudal powers. Also, the Druze formed an alliance with Britain and allowed Protestant Christian missionaries to enter Mount Lebanon, creating tension between them and the native Maronite Church. Approximately 10,000 Christians were killed by the Druze during inter-communal violence in 1860. This bloody conflict led to the destruction of at least 200 villages, with thousands maimed and killed on both sides. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Protestant missionaries established schools and churches in Druze strongholds, with some Druze converting to Protestant Christianity; yet they did not succeed to convert Druze to Christianity en masse.
In June 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt signed into law the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, also known as the "Wiley Act" after its chief advocate. The Act prohibited, under penalty of seizure of goods, the interstate transport of food that had been "adulterated". The act applied similar penalties to the interstate marketing of "adulterated" drugs, in which the "standard of strength, quality, or purity" of the active ingredient was not either stated clearly on the label or listed in the United States Pharmacopeia or the National Formulary. The responsibility for examining food and drugs for such "adulteration" or "misbranding" was given to Wiley's USDA Bureau of Chemistry. Wiley used these new regulatory powers to pursue an aggressive campaign against the manufacturers of foods with chemical additives, but the Chemistry Bureau's authority was soon checked by judicial decisions, which narrowly defined the bureau's powers and set high standards for proof of fraudulent intent. In 1927, the Bureau of Chemistry's regulatory powers were reorganized under a new USDA body, the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration. This name was shortened to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) three years later. By the 1930s, muckraking journalists, consumer protection organizations, and federal regulators began mounting a campaign for stronger regulatory authority by publicizing a list of injurious products that had been ruled permissible under the 1906 law, including radioactive beverages, mascara that could cause blindness, and worthless "cures" for diabetes and tuberculosis.
=== Organisms === Polystyrene is generally considered to be non-biodegradable. However, certain organisms are able to degrade it, albeit very slowly. In 2015, researchers discovered that mealworms, the larvae form of the darkling beetle Tenebrio molitor, could digest and subsist healthily on a diet of EPS. About 100 mealworms could consume between 34 milligrams (0.52 gr) and 39 milligrams (0.60 gr) of this white foam in a day. The droppings of mealworm were found to be safe for use as soil for crops. In 2016, it was also reported that superworms (Zophobas morio) may eat expanded polystyrene (EPS). A group of high school students in Ateneo de Manila University found that compared to Tenebrio molitor larvae, Zophobas morio larvae may consume greater amounts of EPS over longer periods of time. In 2022 scientists identified several bacterial genera, including Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus and Corynebacterium, in the gut of superworms that contain encoded enzymes associated with the degradation of polystyrene and the breakdown product styrene. The bacterium Pseudomonas putida is capable of converting styrene oil into the biodegradable plastic PHA. This may someday be of use in the effective disposing of polystyrene foam. It is worthy to note the polystyrene must undergo pyrolysis to turn into styrene oil.
== Synthesis == MDP is synthesized according to the following reactions: at first, 10-hydroxydecyl methacrylate is synthesized by reaction of methacrylic acid and 1,10-decanediol. Next, phosphoryl chloride is added to 10-hydroxydecy methacrylate, then, the phosphorus-chlorine bonds in this intermediate are hydrolyzed.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Ataxia Severe hypoventilation Acute narrow-angle glaucoma Severe hepatic deficiencies (hepatitis and liver cirrhosis decrease elimination by a factor of two) Severe renal deficiencies (for example, patients on dialysis) Liver disorders Severe sleep apnea Severe depression, particularly when accompanied by suicidal tendencies Psychosis Pregnancy or breastfeeding Caution required in elderly or debilitated patients Coma or shock Abrupt discontinuation of therapy Acute intoxication with alcohol, narcotics, or other psychoactive substances (with the exception of hallucinogens or some stimulants, where it is occasionally used as a treatment for overdose) History of alcohol or drug dependence Myasthenia gravis, an autoimmune disorder causing marked fatiguability Hypersensitivity or allergy to any drug in the benzodiazepine class
=== Asia === China: Introduced in the 1930s. Increasingly, it became more widespread after 1949. The majority were inoculated by 1979. South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Malaysia. In these countries, BCG was given at birth and again at age 12. In Malaysia and Singapore from 2001, this policy was changed to once only at birth. South Korea stopped re-vaccination in 2008. Hong Kong: BCG is given to all newborns. Japan: In Japan, BCG was introduced in 1951, given typically at age 6. From 2005 it is administered between five and eight months after birth, and no later than a child's first birthday. BCG was administered no later than the fourth birthday until 2005, and no later than six months from birth from 2005 to 2012; the schedule was changed in 2012 due to reports of osteitis side effects from vaccinations at 3–4 months. Some municipalities recommend an earlier immunization schedule. Thailand: In Thailand, the BCG vaccine is given routinely at birth. India and Pakistan: India and Pakistan introduced BCG mass immunization in 1948, the first countries outside Europe to do so. In 2015, millions of infants were denied BCG vaccine in Pakistan for the first time due to shortage globally. Mongolia: All newborns are vaccinated with BCG. Previously, the vaccine was also given at ages 8 and 15, although this is no longer common practice. Philippines: BCG vaccine started in the Philippines in 1979 with the Expanded Program on Immunization. Sri Lanka: In Sri Lanka, The National Policy of Sri Lanka is to give BCG vaccination to all newborn babies immediately after birth.
Simcyp Limited was acquired March 13, 2012, by Certara inc. Simcyp Limited is a research-based company which provides modelling and simulation software to the pharmaceutical industry for use during drug development. Simcyp is based in Sheffield, UK. Simcyp's Simulators allow in silico prediction of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism excretion (ADME) and potential drug-drug interactions.
Site describing Pneumatic Trash and Linen Systems, with photos Describes Paris pneumatic post, also mentions others Archived 2002-02-03 at the Wayback Machine "Dial Switches Message Tubes" 1951 article that describes with photos and drawing the basics of how the system operates Site describing pneumatic post systems in England, France, Berlin, the US, and Prague, with photos Article describing the pneumatic post system in Prague Pneumatic mail article from the U.S. National Postal Museum The pneumatic dispatch... (1868) by Alfred Beach (scanned pages) Beach Pneumatic Alfred Beach's Pneumatic Subway and the beginnings of rapid transit in New York Futuristics: Pneumatic Transportation (contains historical illustrations) Capsule Pipelines: good historical information, original author of info found on "capsu.org" pages. Pneumatic Tube System - How it works Cash Railway Website: pneumatic tubes used for cash handling in shops
Most biological substrates lose their biological function when denatured. For example, enzymes lose their activity, because the substrates can no longer bind to the active site, and because amino acid residues involved in stabilizing substrates' transition states are no longer positioned to be able to do so. The denaturing process and the associated loss of activity can be measured using techniques such as dual-polarization interferometry, CD, QCM-D and MP-SPR.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Rodent studies reported increased endurance and fat oxidation after GW501516 exposure. Long-term studies also found higher rates of some tumors, which led to halted development.
Small short-term human trials examined metabolic markers such as lipids and glucose. The trials did not continue after rodent cancer findings, so long-term human safety is unknown.
Controlled human trials have not established a performance benefit. Anecdotal reports exist, but they are not reliable evidence.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist developed for research. It has not been approved as a medication in any country. It is classified as an unapproved drug and a prohibited substance in sport.